The following is a synopsis of the service of Black-Canadians in the military in Canada. As such it leaves out the context in which they served and many details that provide a fuller picture of their contribution.

The numbers of Black-Canadians who served in militia units in peacetime and during war cannot be determined with accuracy. Histories were written to record the exploits of units and officers, not of individual soldiers, while war diaries rarely mentioned the colour of a soldier's skin. Further, enlistment papers and nominal rolls rarely indicate the ethnicity of an individual.

The term Black-Canadian is used as many of the Black soldiers who fought for Britain, and later Canada, had been born in Canada or what became the United States. Later immigrants to Canada were from the West Indies and South America and not from Africa.

In 1759, the British had taken Quebec after the Battle of the Plains of Abraham; however, taking the city and holding on to it were two different things. French General Francois-Gaston de Lévis marched downriver from Montreal, hoping to meet a French fleet and do battle with the English. His army of 6,900 included 300 aboriginals and 33 Black men serving in five different regiments.

On 28 April 1760, Lévis' troops met those of British General James Murray on the Plains of Abraham, and in the Battle of Ste. Foy, as the fight became known, it was the French who won this time. However, the British retreated to the city and waited until the first ships arrived, which in this case were British.

Blacks next served in a Canadian context during the American Revolutionary War. The British realized that by offering freedom to slaves who joined British forces, they could increase the size of their forces and reduce the workforce available to the revolutionaries. Many British units formed in North America integrated these former slaves into their ranks, including Butler's Rangers, The King's Rangers, King's Royal Regiment of New York, Loyal Rangers, and Herkimer's Bateaux Company. The Ethiopian Regiment, which served the Loyalist Governor of Virginia, was composed entirely of former slaves, except for its white officers. In New Jersey a Black officer, Stephen Blucke, who later was evacuated to Nova Scotia, led the "Black Brigade" that waged guerrilla warfare against the rebels.

After the Revolutionary War, Blacks continued to serve. In the four Canadian colonies, Militia Acts required that all able bodied men serve, although service in the militia consisted of being called out for periods varying from two days to two weeks each year. In Upper Canada, Blacks were incorporated in their local militia, although it is unknown if they served in separate sub-units or were integrated. In 1793, Fort Malden had Black soldiers in its ranks while in Toronto the 3rd York Militia had at least 14 including a sergeant shortly prior to the War of 1812. They later transferred to the Colored Corps, which was created as a Black unit during the War of 1812.

In New Brunswick the Militia Act was passed in 1787 but not until 1804 were the first Blacks enrolled in a unit – in this case the York Rangers. In 1813 an African Staff Company was formed and attached to the St. John County Regiment, while in 1830 an "African Company" was authorized to be part of the 1st Battalion Saint John County Militia. The 1st and 3rd Battalions of the York County Militia had Black pioneer companies attached to them while other Blacks served as musicians in militia regiments. These sub-units continued until 1849, after which Blacks served in separate sub-units in other militia regiments.

In Nova Scotia, Blacks also had to perform Militia service; however, the various Militia Acts specified that Blacks were to be formed into separate sub-units within established militia units. These sub-units normally consisted of being pioneers – organized labour in effect, although the tasks were those that would today be allotted to military engineers. Black units were formed in Shelburne in 1784, Halifax as early as 1793, and Digby in 1811, as well as a Black sub-unit attached to the Royal Nova Scotia Regiment. Blacks were also appointed officers of companies, this being the case for Silas Hardy who was so appointed in 1808 to the "Company of Men of Colour" attached to the 20th Battalion of Militia.

The first all-African unit that included men from Canada was actually created in 1806 by William Hull, who was then Governor of Michigan. Peter Denison, a former slave in Michigan, was appointed commander of a group of about 36 "African" slaves and free men, some being former Canadian slaves. This militia company's role was to protect citizens and property from local aboriginal peoples. The unit was disbanded in 1808 having first established a reputation for discipline and hard work.

During the War of 1812, Black-Canadians served with distinction. Various militia units incorporated Black soldiers into their ranks, with 13 being confirmed in Lower Canadian units including the Canadian Voltigeurs. In Upper Canada, the Glengarry Light Infantry is known to have recruited Blacks while others were recruited during the war in the York Militia while in the Maritimes the Nova Scotia Fencible Regiment, the New Brunswick Fencible Regiment also enlisted them.

The British Army's 104th Regiment of Foot, raised in New Brunswick had a pioneer company composed of Blacks from that province. Although nominally pioneers, they are known to have also fought, including at Chippewa and Lundy's Lane. Blacks were also accepted into the British Army's 5th Regiment and 100th Regiment, also stationed in Canada.

In 1812, Black sailors from HMS Marlborough were sent to man the ships of the Provincial Marine, later incorporated into and renamed the Royal Navy (RN). Though their origin is unknown, they could have been former American slaves who continued to serve in the RN after the Revolutionary War. Some Black-Canadians are also known to have served in the Provincial Marine/RN. Both groups of sailors are known to have participated in naval engagements on the waters of the Great Lakes.

Perhaps the best known Black unit of the war was Runchey's Colored Corps, the idea for which was originally suggested by Richard Pierpoint, a Black veteran of Butler's Rangers. The Corps fought with General Roger Sheaffe at Queenston Heights and in defence of Fort George in May 1813. Thereafter, the Corps was converted to an engineer unit and helped construct defensive works.

The next crisis in which Black-Canadians served was the Rebellion of 1837. The response was one of both officially raised units and volunteer units attached to Militia units. When William Lyon Mackenzie instituted his rebellion on 4 December 1837, Militia Headquarters' response was to request that three white officers raise Black units to be led by Captains Thomas Runchey, James H. Sears and Hugh Eccles. These companies were authorized to serve until 1 July 1838 with the first two attached to the 1st Frontier Light Infantry. Sears' company supported the operations on the night of 20 December 1837 when the cutter "Caroline" was cut from its berth at Navy Island.

After the Black companies were officially disbanded in August 1838, there were no further Black units until October at which time reports of rebel infiltrators resulted in Militia Headquarters authorizing 15 independent companies, of which seven were to be manned by Black-Canadians. Recruiting for both White and Black companies was not up to expectations and only four Black companies were raised, one each under Captains George Muttlebury and James Black Perrier and two under Major Richard Webbe as part of a Coloured Corps.

In addition, the Essex Light Infantry accepted three volunteer companies, one of which was led by Josiah Henson. In Hamilton, a large Black volunteer unit, led by a Black officer, Captain William Allen, was attached to the 5th Gore Militia. Blacks served in other units alongside white neighbours, notably in the Simcoe County Militia, and with units in Chatham and in some Toronto units. These local volunteer units performed very effectively throughout the course of the rebellion. Henson's company supported the operation against the schooner "Anne" on 8 January 1838 and later manned Fort Malden. When rebels landed in strength at Windsor in December 1838 at least 50 Black volunteers were part of the hastily organized force that repelled the attack.

With the urgency of the Rebellion in the past, the Black units were disbanded, with two exceptions. Captain Perrier's unit would continue to serve until disbanded in April 1843 having served in part as the main fire-fighting force in Chatham near the end of their service. Major Webbe's Corps would continue to serve long after the Rebellion. The Coloured Corps was the only Incorporated Militia Company to be employed in Upper Canada after the Militia reductions of 1844.

At first it was tasked to build roads but in 1842 was transferred to Port Robinson to provide support to the police of the Welland Canal while it was built. They also enforced customs regulations by observing for smuggling. Their presence also reduced desertion from the British Army by removing these units from the American border. They were noted for crispness of the drill and other units were envious of the honour bestowed upon them. The Coloured Corps was disbanded at Port Robinson in June 1850 as their services were no longer required with the completion of the Welland Canal.

One final segregated unit may have existed after the Coloured Corps. The 1851 Militia List for Upper Canada includes a "Haldimand Independent Colored Rifle Company" for which the captain was Henry Imlack. Nothing is known about this unit. As it was, the Militia became more and more a social club after 1855. Black-Canadians were able to serve in units across the two Canadas, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, but as individual soldiers in integrated units or in separate sub-units, as was the case in NB and NS.

In some cases, such as the York County Militia in NB, two Blacks made it to the rank of captain. The 1st Battalion of Penetanguishene had five Blacks in its ranks in May 1842 while many others received training in the Kent County Militia. Some of these later put their training to use in the Union Army during the American Civil War.

A more common way for Black-Canadians to serve was to form their own volunteer units. With the Sedentary Militia only parading infrequently, volunteer units provided an outlet for those individuals and groups who wished to remain militarily prepared and show their support of the Crown. These volunteer units received some support from Militia Headquarters in their respective provinces. Hamilton, Montreal and St. Catharines had Black volunteer units in the 1850s, the Queen Victoria's Rifle Guards in the case of the former. In Halifax, Blacks formed the Victoria Rifles in February 1860, but were denied the privilege of joining the Sedentary Militia's Halifax Rifles when it was formed the following year.

The most successful of the Black-Canadian units after 1850 was the Victoria Pioneer Rifle Corps in Victoria, BC. Also known as the Pioneer Rifles and the African Rifles, the unit was formed in April 1860. A sergeant from HMS Swiftsure was hired to provide training and uniforms were ordered from Britain. They were the first authorized military force formed in western Canada. They disbanded in March 1864 when the new Governor of the colony took over.

During the Crimean War, several officers suggested that a Black regiment be formed and used for "cannon-fodder." Although there was some discussion in Black communities about forming a unit to be sent to the Crimea, British and Canadian officials in the end did not send anybody of any skin colour.

Some Black-Canadians sought employment or active military service with other nations. During the period of the mast, the Royal Navy and the United States Navy were in continual need of sailors to man their ships. Employment with these navies was one means for both Black- and White-Canadians to make a living at sea. It was in such employment that William Hall of Nova Scotia was sent to India during the Indian Mutiny and in which he later was awarded the Victoria Cross.

The outbreak of the Civil War in the United States also provided a means to military service. On 17 July 1862, Congress passed a law that cleared the way for African-Americans to serve in the US forces. By the end of the Civil War, roughly 179,000 had served – about 10 percent of the Union Army. Over 1000 Blacks living in Canada served in the Union Army and over 200 in the United States Navy.

At least 1400 Black-Canadians served in military units during the war, including 600 in the No.2 Construction Battalion. At the start of the war, as the First Canadian Division of the Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF) was forming at Valcartier, Blacks were being accepted, including at least one as an officer. Many others were not as lucky as racism reared its head and recruiting officers refused to enlist them.

However, in many more units across Canada Black-Canadians were able to enlist, being integrated into the units and not formed into segregated companies or sections. These soldiers served mainly in combat units, and conducted themselves with distinction.

The Royal Canadian Navy, which had been created in 1910, did not have any Black-Canadians serving in its ranks. Whether none had applied or because they had been turned away is unknown. Although the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) did not come into existence until 1924, at least one Black member of the CEF was able to transfer the Britain's Royal Flying Corps and became a pilot. This was despite rules prohibiting the enlistment of visible minorities into the British flying services.

With the end of the war, most soldiers returned home to a civilian life. Some were able to remain active with their local militia unit, although numbers are not known. The RCAF is known to have enrolled two Black-Canadians in the inter-war period; however, this was an organization that had few positions and high educational standards. The RCN did not have any visible minorities in its ranks.

By the start of Second World War, racism became enshrined in the regulations of the RCAF and the RCN. In late 1938 and early 1939, the Federal Cabinet passed orders-in-council that prohibited the enlistment of visible minorities in these two services. The militia did not have any such regulation as it left recruiting to local units. Not until March 1942 did the RCAF lift its racist policy, but even before then at least 25 Black-Canadians had been able to enlist.

The RCN regulations were lifted in 1943. Racism in the militia reared its ugly head in hindering the enlistment of Blacks in Nova Scotia; however, most areas of the country more readily accepted them. Even Blacks from the British West Indies came to Canada to serve in Canadian militia units.

No statistics were compiled during the war on visible minorities in the three Canadian services. At least 51 are known to have served in the RCAF and three in the RCN. By far the most served in the militia, in combat and support units. Some Black-Canadian females were also able to enlist in all three services and thus serve in the war effort.

Postwar, service was far more open to Black-Canadians. Through the 1950s, the RCAF held on to vestiges of racism by screening visible minority applicants to ensure they could fit into the predominantly white environment; however, in the smaller post-war service far more Black-Canadians were able to enlist than during the war. Black-Canadians were also able to rise much higher in the ranks in all three services than they did during the war.
Article graciously provided by Kathy Grant and Mathias Jooste.